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Introduction 1
Chapter 1.Population Expansion and Demographic Pressure in
Qing China (1644-1911) .11
1. “The Chinese Thomas Malthus” 11
2. Population Expansion in the Early Qing 17
3. Solutions for the Demographic Pressure 20
4. Conclusion .28
Chapter 2.Total Trade Value in the First Half of the 19th-Century
Qing China 31
1. Estimating the Market Circulation of Commodities .34
2. Verifying the Value of Commodities with Customs Duties 41
3. Conclusion .62
Chapter 3.The Fiscal Transformation of the Qing State in
the Middle of the 19th Century 65
1. The Fiscal Structure of the Jiaqing and Daoguang Times .66
2. War: An Almost Collapse of the Fiscal System .83
3. Structural Change .88
4. Conclusion .102
Chapter 4.To Borrow Money (1851-1874) .110
1. Failure of Domestic Borrowing .110
2. Success of Foreign Loans 118
3. Conclusion .124
Chapter 5.China’s f.lood in 1823 .130
1. The Organization of the Qing State 133
2. The 1823 Flood and Government Response .136
3. Structure and Amount of Disaster Relief 151
4. Relationship to Debates in the Literature .156
5. Conclusion .161
Conclusion 163
References 172
Archival, printed and online sources .172
Bibliography .174
Appendices .182
Appendix A.Customs Revenues Collected at selected Changguan in 1796-1850 (in taels of silver) 182
Table A-1.Shanhai Guan, Zhangjiakou, Shahukou, Guihuacheng,
Dajianlu, Chen Guan, Zhongjiang 182
Table A-2.Fengtian Niuma Shui, Wuchang and Xunchang, Pantaokou, Wuyuancheng, Gubeiko, Chongwenmen, Zuoyi 184
Table A-3.Youyi, Zuoliangting, Huai’an Guan, Xushu Guan, Yangzhou Guan, Wuhu Huguan, Wuhu Gongguan .186
Table A-4.Fengyang Guan, Longjiang Guan, Xixin Guan, Jiujiang
Guan, Gan Guan, Beixin Guan, Nanxin Guan .188
Table A-5.Linqing Huguan, Linqing Gongguan, Taiping Guan, Wuchang Guan, Jingzhou Guan, Hubei Xinguan, Kui Guan 190
Table A-6.Yu Guan, Tianjin Guan, Tianjin Haiguan, Donghai Guan, Jianghai Guan, Zhehai Guan 192
Table A-7.Minhai Guan, Total, Subtotal Huguan,
Subtotal Gongguan 194
Appendix B.Land Tax in 1821-1850 (in taels of silver) 196
Table B-1.Zhili, Shandong, Shanxi, Henan 196
Table B-2.Jiangning, Suzhou, Anhui, Jiangxi .197
Table B-3.Fujian, Zhejiang, Hunan, Hubei 198
Table B-4.Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan .199
Table B-5.Guizhou, Guangdong, Guangxi, Total .200
Appendix C.Explaining China’s 1823 Flood Regression Model .201
Table C-1.Price behaviour during and after 1823 f.lood .205
Table C-2.Land Tax And Land Tax Reductions
in 1823 (in tael of silver) .206
Table C-3.Total Relief Payments In China
(1823, in tael of silver) .207
Table C-4.Disaster Spending in Britain (1845-1849, annual average), China (1823), and Prussia’s Rhine Province (1816-1817) 208
Appendix D.Calculating China’s Historical Economic Aggregate:
A GDP-centered Measurement 209