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Figures xxi Tables xxiii 1. Introduction Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 1.1 The Study of Second Language Acquisition 1.2 Defi nitions 1.3 The Nature of Language 1.3.1 Sound Systems 1.3.2 Syntax 1.3.3 Morphology and the Lexicon 1.3.4 Semantics 1.3.5 Pragmatics 1.4 The Nature of Nonnative Speaker Knowledge 1.5 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 2. Second and Foreign Language Data Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 2.1 Data Analysis 2.1.1 Data Set I: Plurals 2.1.2 Data Set II: Verb + -ing Markers 2.1.3 Data Set III: Prepositions 2.2 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 3. Where Do Data Come From? Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 3.1 Data Types 3.2 Learner Corpora 3.3 Data Elicitation 3.3.1 Measuring General Proficiency 3.3.2 Measuring Nonlinguistic Information 3.3.3 Verbal Report Data 3.3.3.1 Think-Alouds 3.3.3.2 Stimulated Recall 3.3.3.3 Post-Production Interviews 3.3.4 Language-Elicitation Measures 3.4 Processing Data 3.4.1 Reaction Time 3.4.2 Eye-Tracking 3.5 Replication 3.6 Meta-Analyses 3.7 Issues in Data Analysis 3.8 What Is Acquisition? 3.9 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 4. The Role of the Native Language: A Historical Overview Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Behaviorism 4.2.1 Linguistic Background 4.2.2 Psychological Background 4.3 Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 4.4 Error Analysis 4.5 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 5. The Transition Period Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 5.1 Introduction 5.2 First Language Acquisition 5.2.1 Babbling 5.2.2 Words 5.2.3 Sounds and Pronunciation 5.2.4 Syntax 5.2.5 Morphology 5.3 Child L2 Acquisition 5.4 Child L2 Morpheme Order Studies 5.5 Adult L2 Morpheme Order Studies 5.6 The Monitor Model 5.6.1 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis 5.6.2 The Natural Order Hypothesis 5.6.3 The Monitor Hypothesis 5.6.4 The Input Hypothesis 5.6.5 The Affective Filter Hypothesis 5.6.6 Limitations 5.7 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 6. Alternative Approaches to the Role of Previously Known Languages Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 6.1 Revised Perspectives on the Role of the Native Language 6.1.1 Avoidance 6.1.2 Differential Learning Rates 6.1.3 Different Paths 6.1.4 Overproduction 6.1.5 Predictability/Selectivity 6.1.6 L1 Influences in L2 Processing 6.1.7 Morpheme Order 6.2 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 7. Formal Approaches to SLA Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Universal Grammar 7.2.1 Initial State 7.2.1.1 Fundamental Difference Hypothesis 7.2.1.2 Access to UG Hypothesis 7.2.2 UG Principles 7.2.3 UG Parameters 7.2.4 Minimalist Program 7.2.5 Falsification 7.3 Transfer: The Generative/UG Perspective 7.3.1 Levels of Representation 7.3.2 Clustering 7.3.3 Learnability 7.4 The Fundamental Difference Hypothesis Revised 7.5 Semantics and the Syntax¨CSemantics Interface Hypothesis 7.5.1 Semantics 7.5.2 Syntax and Semantics: The Interface Hypothesis 7.6 Phonology 7.6.1 Markedness Differential Hypothesis 7.6.2 Similarity/Dissimilarity: Speech Learning Model 7.6.3 Optimality Theory 7.6.4 Ontogeny Phylogeny Model 7.7 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 8. The Lexicon Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 8.1 The Signifi cance of the Lexicon 8.2 Lexical Knowledge: What does it mean to know a word? 8.2.1 Production and Reception 8.2.2 Knowledge and Control 8.2.3 Breadth and Depth 8.2.4 Subcategorization 8.2.5 Word Associations and Networks 8.2.6 Word Formation 8.2.7 Formulaic Language, Collocations, and Chunking 8.3 Infl uences on L2 Vocabulary and Development 8.3.1 The Role of the L 8.3.2 Incidental Vocabulary Learning 8.3.3 Incremental Vocabulary Learning 8.4 Using Lexical Skills 8.4.1 Production 8.4.2 Perception 8.5 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 9. Typological and Functional Approaches Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Typological Universals 9.2.1 Test Case I: The Accessibility Hierarchy 9.2.2 Test Case II: The Acquisition of Questions 9.2.3 Test Case III: Voiced/Voiceless Consonants 9.2.4 Falsifiability 9.2.5 Typological Universals: Conclusions 9.3 Functional Approaches 9.3.1 Tense and Aspect: The Aspect Hypothesis 9.3.2 The Discourse Hypothesis 9.3.3 Concept-Oriented Approach 9.4 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 10. Looking at Interlanguage Processing Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Processing Approaches 10.2.1 Processability Theory 10.2.2 Information Processing: Automaticity, Restructuring, and U-Shaped Learning 10.2.2.1 Automaticity and Restructuring 10.2.2.2 U-Shaped Learning 10.2.3 Input Processing 10.3 Psycholinguistic Constructs 10.3.1 Attention 10.3.2 Working Memory 10.3.3 Syntactic Priming 10.4 Emergentist Models 10.4.1 Competition Model 10.4.2 Frequency-Based Accounts 10.5 Dynamic Systems 10.6 Knowledge Types 10.6.1 Acquisition/Learning 10.6.2 Declarative/Procedural 10.6.3 Implicit/Explicit 10.6.4 Representation/Control 10.7 Interface of Knowledge Types 10.7.1 No Interface 10.7.2 Weak Interface 10.7.3 Strong Interface 10.8 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 11. Interlanguage in Context Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Sociocultural Approaches 11.2.1 Mediation 11.2.2 Internalization 11.2.3 Zone of Proximal Development 11.2.4 Private Speech 11.2.5 Learning in a Sociocultural Framework 11.2.6 Gesture and SLA 11.3 Variation 11.4 Systematic Variation 11.4.1 Linguistic Context 11.4.2 Social Context Relating to the Native Language 11.4.3 Social Context Relating to Interlocutor, Task Type, and Conversational Topic 11.5 Conversation Analysis 11.6 Communication Strategies 11.7 Interlanguage Pragmatics 11.8 Language Learning in a Study-Abroad Context 11.9 Conclusion: SLA and Other Disciplines Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 12. Input, Interaction, and Output Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Input 12.3 Comprehension 12.4 Interaction 12.5 Output 12.5.1 Feedback 12.5.1.1 Negotiation 12.5.1.2 Recasts 12.5.2 Hypothesis Testing 12.5.3 Automaticity 12.5.4 Meaning-Based to Grammar-Based Processing 12.6 The Role of Input and Interaction in Language Learning 12.6.1 The Functions of Input and Interaction 12.6.2 Effectiveness of Feedback 12.6.2.1 Attention 12.6.2.2 Contrast Theory 12.6.2.3 Metalinguistic Awareness 12.6.3 Who Benefits From Interaction? 12.7 Limitations of Input 12.8 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 13. Instructed Second Language Learning Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Classroom Language 13.3 Teachability/Learnability 13.4 Focus on Form 13.4.1 Timing 13.4.2 Forms to Focus On 13.4.3 Task Design 13.4.4 Input Manipulation and Input Enhancement 13.5 Complexity, Accuracy, Fluency, and Planning 13.6 Processing Instruction 13.7 Uniqueness of Instruction 13.8 Effectiveness of Instruction 13.9 SLA and Classroom Practices 13.10 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 14. Nonlanguage Influences Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Research Traditions 14.2.1 Linguistics 14.2.2 Psychology 14.2.3 Psycholinguistics 14.3 Methodological Considerations 14.4 Age Differences 14.5 Aptitude 14.6 Motivation 14.6.1 Motivation as a Function of Time and Success 14.6.2 Changes Over Time 14.6.3 Influence of Success on Motivation and Demotivation 14.7 Affect 14.7.1 Language Shock and Culture Shock 14.7.2 Anxiety 14.7.3 Social Distance 14.8 Extroversion and Introversion 14.9 Learning Strategies 14.10 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 15. Related Disciplines Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Bilingual Acquisition 15.3 Third Language Acquisition/Multilingualism 15.4 Heritage Language Acquisition 15.5 SLA by Hearing Impaired 15.6 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö Suggestions for Additional Reading More to Do and More to Think About 16. An Integrated View of Second Language Acquisition Õ½ڵ¼¶Á 16.1 An Integration of Sub-Areas 16.1.1 Apperceived Input 16.1.2 Comprehended Input 16.1.3 Intake 16.1.4 Integration 16.1.5 Output 16.2 Conclusion Äѵã×¢ÊÍÓëÆÀÎö More to Do and More to Think About Glossary References